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Leopold I (1640-1705) was the second son of Emperor Ferdinand III, and became heir apparent after the death of his older brother, Ferdinand IV. He was elected Holy Roman Emperor in 1658 after his father's death, and by then had also already become Archduke of Austria and claimed the crowns of Germany, Croatia, Bohemia and Hungary.
Germany: 'Court Performance and Festive Parade in Honour of the Wedding of Emperor Leopold I with Margaret Theresa of Spain in December 1666', illustration by Francesco Sbarra (1611-1668), c. 1667, Florence. Leopold I (1640-1705) was the second son of Emperor Ferdinand III, and became heir apparent after the death of his older brother, Ferdinand IV. He was elected Holy Roman Emperor in 1658 after his father's death, and by then had also already become Archduke of Austria and claimed the crowns of Germany, Croatia, Bohemia and Hungary.
Germany: Copper engraving of Leopold I (1640-1705), 37th Holy Roman emperor, by Nicolas II de Larmessin (1632-1694), c. 1690. Leopold I was the second son of Emperor Ferdinand III, and became heir apparent after the death of his older brother, Ferdinand IV. He was elected Holy Roman Emperor in 1658 after his father's death, and by then had also already become Archduke of Austria and claimed the crowns of Germany, Croatia, Bohemia and Hungary.
Germany: Portrait medallions of Leopold I (1640-1705), 37th Holy Roman emperor, his wife Eleonore Magdalene and his son King Joseph I, over a view of Augsburg. Copper engraving, c. 1689. Leopold I was the second son of Emperor Ferdinand III, and became heir apparent after the death of his older brother, Ferdinand IV. He was elected Holy Roman Emperor in 1658 after his father's death, and by then had also already become Archduke of Austria and claimed the crowns of Germany, Croatia, Bohemia and Hungary.
Germany: 'Entry of Emperor Leopold I, his Wife Eleonore Magdalene and King Joseph I to the Augsburg Cathedral', copper engraving, c. 1689. Leopold I (1640-1705) was the second son of Emperor Ferdinand III, and became heir apparent after the death of his older brother, Ferdinand IV. He was elected Holy Roman Emperor in 1658 after his father's death, and by then had also already become Archduke of Austria and claimed the crowns of Germany, Croatia, Bohemia and Hungary.
Germany: 'Emperor Leopold's Wedding with Claudia Felicitas of Austria, Graz, 15 October 1673', copper engraving by Cornelis Meyssens and Johann Martin Lerch (1643-1693), c. 1673. Leopold I (1640-1705) was the second son of Emperor Ferdinand III, and became heir apparent after the death of his older brother, Ferdinand IV. He was elected Holy Roman Emperor in 1658 after his father's death, and by then had also already become Archduke of Austria and claimed the crowns of Germany, Croatia, Bohemia and Hungary.
Germany: 'Emperor Leopold's Wedding with Margaret Theresa of Spain, 1666/1667', copper engraving, c. 1660s. Leopold I (1640-1705) was the second son of Emperor Ferdinand III, and became heir apparent after the death of his older brother, Ferdinand IV. He was elected Holy Roman Emperor in 1658 after his father's death, and by then had also already become Archduke of Austria and claimed the crowns of Germany, Croatia, Bohemia and Hungary.
Leopold I (1640-1705) was the second son of Emperor Ferdinand III, and became heir apparent after the death of his older brother, Ferdinand IV. He was elected Holy Roman Emperor in 1658 after his father's death, and by then had also already become Archduke of Austria and claimed the crowns of Germany, Croatia, Bohemia and Hungary.
Leopold I (1640-1705) was the second son of Emperor Ferdinand III, and became heir apparent after the death of his older brother, Ferdinand IV. He was elected Holy Roman Emperor in 1658 after his father's death, and by then had also already become Archduke of Austria and claimed the crowns of Germany, Croatia, Bohemia and Hungary.
Copper engraving of Ferdinand II (1578-1637), 35th Holy Roman emperor, by Matthaus Merian the Elder (1593-1650), c. 1642.<br/><br/> Ferdinand II (1578-1637) was the son of Charles II, Archduke of Austria, and grandson of Emperor Ferdinand I. Ferdinand was part of a Catholic faction opposed to his cousin, Emperor Matthias, who was more tolerant to Protestantism. He became King of Bohemia in 1617, King of Hungary in 1618, and ascended to Holy Roman Emperor in 1619 after his cousin's death.
Ferdinand II (1578-1637) was the son of Charles II, Archduke of Austria, and grandson of Emperor Ferdinand I. Ferdinand was part of a Catholic faction opposed to his cousin, Emperor Matthias, who was more tolerant to Protestantism. He became King of Bohemia in 1617, King of Hungary in 1618, and ascended to Holy Roman Emperor in 1619 after his cousin's death.<br/><br/> Ferdinand was a zealous Catholic and immediately worked to restore Catholicism as the only religion in the Holy Roman Empire, suppressing Protestantism wherever he could, leading to conflict with his non-Catholic subjects. He discarded the Letter of Majesty signed by the previous emperor, Rudolf II, which granted freedom of religion to the nobles and inhabitants of Bohemia. His absolutist policies and infringement on noble historical privileges led to the Bohemian Revolt. His actions during the Second Defenestration of Prague in 1618 were considered the first steps of the Thirty Years' War.<br/><br/> The Thirty Years' War raged across much of Central Europe, drawing in more and more factions, fighting either on the Catholic or Protestant side. It became one of the longest and most destructive conflicts in European history, as well as being the deadliest European religious war, with more than eight million casualties. Ferdinand himself died in 1637, before the war ended, leaving his son Ferdinand III to deal with the war and try to manage an empire engulfed in chaos.
Ferdinand III (1608-1657) was the eldest son of Emperor Ferdinand II. He became Archduke of Austria in 1621, King of Hungary in 1625 and King of Bohemia in 1627. Ferdinand was appointed head of the Imperial Army in 1634 during the Thirty Years' War, and was vital in the negotiation of the Peace of Prague in 1635, the same year he was elected King of Germany. When his father died in 1637, he succeeded him as Holy Roman Emperor.<br/><br/> As emperor, Ferdinand wished for peace with France and Sweden, but the war would drag on for another 11 years, finally ending with the signing of the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. Composing of the Treaty of Munster with France and the Treaty of Osnabruck with Sweden, the Peace of Westphalia represented a major shift in the concept of sovereign nation-states and European power, especially in terms of national self-determination and non-interference. Ferdinand himself had in 1644 given the right for all rulers of German states to conduct their own foreign policy, which backfired on him and would contribute to the erosion of imperial authority in the Holy Roman Empire.<br/><br/> After the Peace of Westphalia, Ferdinand was busy enforcing and carrying out the terms of the treaty as well as getting rid of foreign soldiery from German lands. He soon reneged on the terms of the treaty by interfering in Italy in 1656, sending an army to assist Spain against France. As he was concluding an alliance with Poland to check Swedish aggression, Ferdinand died in 1657.
Ferdinand II (1578-1637) was the son of Charles II, Archduke of Austria, and grandson of Emperor Ferdinand I. Ferdinand was part of a Catholic faction opposed to his cousin, Emperor Matthias, who was more tolerant to Protestantism. He became King of Bohemia in 1617, King of Hungary in 1618, and ascended to Holy Roman Emperor in 1619 after his cousin's death.<br/><br/> Ferdinand was a zealous Catholic and immediately worked to restore Catholicism as the only religion in the Holy Roman Empire, suppressing Protestantism wherever he could, leading to conflict with his non-Catholic subjects. He discarded the Letter of Majesty signed by the previous emperor, Rudolf II, which granted freedom of religion to the nobles and inhabitants of Bohemia. His absolutist policies and infringement on noble historical privileges led to the Bohemian Revolt. His actions during the Second Defenestration of Prague in 1618 were considered the first steps of the Thirty Years' War.<br/><br/> The Thirty Years' War raged across much of Central Europe, drawing in more and more factions, fighting either on the Catholic or Protestant side. It became one of the longest and most destructive conflicts in European history, as well as being the deadliest European religious war, with more than eight million casualties. Ferdinand himself died in 1637, before the war ended, leaving his son Ferdinand III to deal with the war and try to manage an empire engulfed in chaos.
Matthias (1557-1619) was the son of Emperor Maximilian II and younger brother of Emperor Rudolf II. He married his cousin, Archduchess Anna of Austria, becoming successor to his uncle, Archduke Ferdinand II. He was invited to the Netherlands by the rebellious provinces and offered the position of Governor-General in 1578, which he accepted despite the protestations of his uncle, King Philip II of Spain.<br/><br/> Matthias helped to set down the rules for religious peace and freedom of religion, and only returned home in 1581 after the Netherlands deposed Philip II to become fully independent. He became governor of Austria in 1593 by his brother Rudolf's appointment. He forced his brother to allow him to negotiate with the Hungarian revolts of 1605, resulting in the Peace of Vienna in 1606. He then forced his brother to yield to him the crowns of Hungary, Austria and Moravia in 1608, and then making him cede the Bohemian throne in 1611. By then Matthias had imprisoned his brother, where he remained till his death in 1612.<br/><br/> After Rudolf's death, Matthias ascended to Holy Roman emperor, and had to juggle between appeasing both the Catholic and Protestant states within the Holy Roman Empire, hoping to reach a compromise and strengthen the empire. The Bohemian Protestant revolt of 1618 provoked his strongly Catholic brother Maximilian III to imprison Matthias' advisors and take control of the empire, Matthias being too old and ailing to stop him. Matthias died a year later in 1619.
Rudolf II (1552-1612) was the eldest son and successor of Emperor Maximilian II, and spent eight formative years in the Spanish court of his maternal uncle Philip II, adopting a stiff and aloof manner typical of the more conservative Spanish nobility. He remained reserved and secretive for the rest of his life, less inclined to daily affairs of state and more interested in occult studies such as alchemy and astrology.<br/><br/> Rudolf became King of Hungary and Croatia in 1572, and by the time of his father's death in 1576, had also inherited the Bohemian, German and Holy Roman crowns. Rudolf dangled himself as a marital prize in various diplomatic negotiations, but like his contemporary, Queen Elizabeth I of England, he ultimately never married. Rudolf did have a succession of affairs with various women however, resulting in several illegitimate children. He was also religiously neutral, tolerant to Protestantism and other religions despite being raised in a Catholic court.<br/><br/> Rudolf's conflict with the Ottoman Empire would be his undoing. He started a long and indecisive war with the Ottomans in 1593 that lasted till 1606 and was known as The Long War. His Hungarian subjects revolted in 1604, tired from the fighting, and he was forced to cede the Hungarian crown to his younger brother, Archduke Matthias. Bohemian Protestants also pressed for greater religious liberty, and when Rudolf attempted to use his army to repress them in 1609, Matthias imprisoned Rudolf and forced him to cede the Bohemian crown as well. Rudolf died in 1612, having been stripped of all effective power aside from the empty title of Holy Roman Emperor.
Maximilian II (1527-1576) was the son of Emperor Ferdinand I. He served during the Italian Wars in 1544, as well as the Schmalkadic War. His uncle, Emperor Charles V, made him marry his cousin and Charles' daughter Mary of Spain in 1548, and Maximilian acted temporarily as the emperor's representative in Spain. Questions of succession soon saw trouble brew between the German and Spanish branches of the Habsburg dynasty, and it was suspected that Maximilian was poisoned in 1552 by those in league with his cousin and brother-in-law, Philip II.<br/><br/> The relationship between Maximilian and his cousin Philip soon became uneasy, with Philip being a Spaniard born and raised, while Maximilian idenitifed himself as the quintessential German prince: outgoing, charismatic and religiously tolerant. He governed the Austrian hereditary lands alongside his father, defending them against Ottoman incursions. He was chosen and crowned as King of Germany in 1562 after assuring the Catholic electors of his faith, and was crowned a year later as King of Hungary. By the time his father died in 1564, Maximilian had inherited the crowns of Croatia, Bohemia and of the Holy Roman emperor.<br/><br/> Maximilian's rule was marred by the ongoing Ottoman-Habsburg wars as well as deteriorating relations with his Habsburg cousins in the Spanish Empire. By the time of his death in 1576, he had not succeeded in achieving his three major goals: rationalising the governmental structure, unifying Christianity and evicting the Ottomans from Hungary. He refused to receive the last sacraments of the Church while on his deathbed.
Maximilian II (1527-1576) was the son of Emperor Ferdinand I. He served during the Italian Wars in 1544, as well as the Schmalkadic War. His uncle, Emperor Charles V, made him marry his cousin and Charles' daughter Mary of Spain in 1548, and Maximilian acted temporarily as the emperor's representative in Spain. Questions of succession soon saw trouble brew between the German and Spanish branches of the Habsburg dynasty, and it was suspected that Maximilian was poisoned in 1552 by those in league with his cousin and brother-in-law, Philip II.<br/><br/> The relationship between Maximilian and his cousin Philip soon became uneasy, with Philip being a Spaniard born and raised, while Maximilian idenitifed himself as the quintessential German prince: outgoing, charismatic and religiously tolerant. He governed the Austrian hereditary lands alongside his father, defending them against Ottoman incursions. He was chosen and crowned as King of Germany in 1562 after assuring the Catholic electors of his faith, and was crowned a year later as King of Hungary. By the time his father died in 1564, Maximilian had inherited the crowns of Croatia, Bohemia and of the Holy Roman emperor.<br/><br/> Maximilian's rule was marred by the ongoing Ottoman-Habsburg wars as well as deteriorating relations with his Habsburg cousins in the Spanish Empire. By the time of his death in 1576, he had not succeeded in achieving his three major goals: rationalising the governmental structure, unifying Christianity and evicting the Ottomans from Hungary. He refused to receive the last sacraments of the Church while on his deathbed.
Rudolf II (1552-1612) was the eldest son and successor of Emperor Maximilian II, and spent eight formative years in the Spanish court of his maternal uncle Philip II, adopting a stiff and aloof manner typical of the more conservative Spanish nobility. He remained reserved and secretive for the rest of his life, less inclined to daily affairs of state and more interested in occult studies such as alchemy and astrology.<br/><br/> Rudolf became King of Hungary and Croatia in 1572, and by the time of his father's death in 1576, had also inherited the Bohemian, German and Holy Roman crowns. Rudolf dangled himself as a marital prize in various diplomatic negotiations, but like his contemporary, Queen Elizabeth I of England, he ultimately never married. Rudolf did have a succession of affairs with various women however, resulting in several illegitimate children. He was also religiously neutral, tolerant to Protestantism and other religions despite being raised in a Catholic court.<br/><br/> Rudolf's conflict with the Ottoman Empire would be his undoing. He started a long and indecisive war with the Ottomans in 1593 that lasted till 1606 and was known as The Long War. His Hungarian subjects revolted in 1604, tired from the fighting, and he was forced to cede the Hungarian crown to his younger brother, Archduke Matthias. Bohemian Protestants also pressed for greater religious liberty, and when Rudolf attempted to use his army to repress them in 1609, Matthias imprisoned Rudolf and forced him to cede the Bohemian crown as well. Rudolf died in 1612, having been stripped of all effective power aside from the empty title of Holy Roman Emperor.
Ferdinand I (1503-1564), 31st Holy Roman emperor, by Barthel Beham (1502-1540), c. 1531.<br/><br/> Ferdinand I (1503-1564) was the son of Philip I of Castile and Queen Joanna I of Castile, grandson of Emperor Maximilian I and younger brother of future emperor Charles V. Ferdinand became King of Bohemia and Hungary in 1526 after the death of his brother-in-law Louis II, and served as his brother Charles' deputy in the Holy Roman Empire during his numerous absences, eventually being crowned as King of Germany in 1531. When Charles V abdicated in 1556, Ferdinand was elected as his successor to the imperial throne, becoming Holy Roman emperor in 1558.
Copper engraving of Maximilian II (1527-1576), 32nd Holy Roman emperor, by Emanuel van Meteren (1535-1612) and Simeon Ruytinck (-1621), c. 1614.<br/><br/> Maximilian II (1527-1576) was the son of Emperor Ferdinand I. By the time his father died in 1564, Maximilian had inherited the crowns of Croatia, Bohemia and of the Holy Roman emperor.